Banking and Finance accreditation with FINSIA has been obtained provided the student completes specific units.
UAI or mature-age entry through the Universities Admissions Centre (UAC).
HSC English standard and 2 unit Mathematics.
Qualification for this award requires the successful completion of 240 credit points including the units listed in the recommended sequence below.
Students should have no more than 100 credit points of Level 0 units and now fewer than 60 credit points of Level 3 units. Electives within the sequence may be used towards obtaining an approved major or sub-major for this award.
Key Programs
Banking and Finance Key Program
Year 1
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Globalisation and Australia
This unit provides an overview of the development of the Australian economy since 1788 in the context of the evolution of the global economy during the last two centuries. A strong emphasis is placed on the interaction of the processes promoting globalisation in the international economy, with the endemic tendencies towards social conflict and nationalism that have accompanied the consolidation of the capitalist nation state. Within this framework the specific factors that have given Australian economic development its unique character are analysed. The unit concludes by examining the socio-economic outcomes that ongoing globalisation is likely to produce in the twenty-first century and looks at the principal alternative economic strategies that Australian governments might follow over the next few decades.
Financial Institutions and Markets
The investment, financing and risk management decisions that all firms make are implemented by creating and trading financial instruments in financial markets, often with the involvement of a variety of institutions. Using the Australian financial system as an illustration, this unit introduces students to the theory and functions of financial intermediaries and the operation of financial systems. Students also develop an understanding of the role and functions of markets in equities, debt, foreign exchange, options and futures, and theories of interest rate determination and the term structure of interest rates.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
And one elective
Year 2
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
Financial Institutions Management
This unit provides an introduction to the theory and analytical techniques relevant to the management of Australian financial institutions. The unit presents a thorough examination of the major financial risks faced by Australian banks, and methods of measuring and managing these risks.
Financial Institutions Lending
The focus of this unit is primarily on loan policy questions, such as the appropriate loan portfolio mix or how risks can be adequately priced into loans, rather than on the operational issues which tend to be more the focus of the internal training programs of banks and other financial institutions.
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
And three electives
Year 3
Choose two of
Financial Economics
This unit provides students with a unifying theoretical perspective on the most important concepts in the field of finance. The presentation is rigorous and students develop their ability to critically evaluate the principal theoretical results in the finance literature.
Behavioural Finance
Traditional theories of finance are based the assumption that investors are both rational and utility maximizing. The Efficient Markets Hypothesis in particular has assumptions about investor behaviour which underpin its key predictions. The tenants of beharioural finance disputes the validity of these assumptions. This unit challenges traditional theory by examining how decision making and investor behaviour may be driven by personal and market psychology.
Derivatives
This unit provides an introduction to trading and the theory of pricing of options, futures and other derivative products currently used in the domestic and international financial markets.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
The Superannuation Industry
This unit provides students with an understanding of the economics of retirement and retirement income provision, with particular emphasis on the Australian superannuation industry. On completion of this unit, students should have a comprehensive understanding of superannuation in Australia, as well as an appreciation of the economic issues associated with alternative models of retirement income provision.
Choose two of
Government and the Economy
This unit focuses on the nature of state activity in the economy. The unit introduces students to different analytical approaches to the economic role of the state and considers their practical implications for economic policy analysis.
Macroeconomic Issues
Macroeconomic Issues builds on concepts examined in earlier units in macroeconomics and applies them to selected areas of debate concerning macroeconomic policy formulation. The unit examines key areas of debate within macroeconomic theory and develops an understanding of approaches used in the theoretical and empirical modelling of key macroeconomic aggregates. Macroeconomic policies are analysed for an open economy with special reference to the Australian economy. Major policy areas considered include inflation, unemployment and labour markets, exchange rate adjustments and the current account, the role and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, and Australia’s recent economic growth performance.
Political Economy
This unit examines various political economy approaches to the analysis of economics, mainly associated with Austrian, Marxian, post-Keynesian and evolutionary schools of thought. These may be regarded as the main alternatives to neo-classical economic theory. As they do not represent a unified body of thought, the unit will survey the main contributions of each, focusing on both the positive aspects of theory and the negative aspects relating to the critique of neo-classical theory.
And four electives
Economic Analysis and Policy Key Program
Year 1
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Globalisation and Australia
This unit provides an overview of the development of the Australian economy since 1788 in the context of the evolution of the global economy during the last two centuries. A strong emphasis is placed on the interaction of the processes promoting globalisation in the international economy, with the endemic tendencies towards social conflict and nationalism that have accompanied the consolidation of the capitalist nation state. Within this framework the specific factors that have given Australian economic development its unique character are analysed. The unit concludes by examining the socio-economic outcomes that ongoing globalisation is likely to produce in the twenty-first century and looks at the principal alternative economic strategies that Australian governments might follow over the next few decades.
Financial Institutions and Markets
The investment, financing and risk management decisions that all firms make are implemented by creating and trading financial instruments in financial markets, often with the involvement of a variety of institutions. Using the Australian financial system as an illustration, this unit introduces students to the theory and functions of financial intermediaries and the operation of financial systems. Students also develop an understanding of the role and functions of markets in equities, debt, foreign exchange, options and futures, and theories of interest rate determination and the term structure of interest rates.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
And one elective
Year 2
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
Government and the Economy
This unit focuses on the nature of state activity in the economy. The unit introduces students to different analytical approaches to the economic role of the state and considers their practical implications for economic policy analysis.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
And four electives
Year 3
Microeconomic Theory and Applications
The aim of this unit is to extend students’ knowledge of microeconomic theory developed in the unit Industry Economics and Markets. After a more formal presentation, the rather idealistic assumptions used in the context of the perfectly competitive markets will be relaxed in order to model typical situations encountered in the business world. The theory of choice will be extended to situations where individuals face uncertainty regarding the outcome of their own actions. In terms of market structure, we will investigate the consequences in terms of price, quantity and consumer’s surplus, of monopoly, oligopoly or duopoly markets. As some of these market structures imply that the individuals’ decisions might strongly affect or be affected by a limited number of other decision makers, an introduction to Game Theory will be presented. Finally, our concerns for investigating more realistic economic situations will lead us to make a brief incursion into markets characterised by asymmetric information, the presence of public goods or the existence of externalities.
Macroeconomic Issues
Macroeconomic Issues builds on concepts examined in earlier units in macroeconomics and applies them to selected areas of debate concerning macroeconomic policy formulation. The unit examines key areas of debate within macroeconomic theory and develops an understanding of approaches used in the theoretical and empirical modelling of key macroeconomic aggregates. Macroeconomic policies are analysed for an open economy with special reference to the Australian economy. Major policy areas considered include inflation, unemployment and labour markets, exchange rate adjustments and the current account, the role and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, and Australia’s recent economic growth performance.
Choose two of
History of Economic Thought
This unit introduces the ideas of the most influential economic writers since Aristotle. Their theoretic contributions are discussed in the context of the political and philosophical debates and the economic issues of their times. The unit focuses on the theories of value and distribution; business cycles; and money and economic growth. It examines the criteria for progress in economic thought and considers the role of ideology and values. Students read selections from the writings of Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, Marshall, Keynes and institutional writers.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Political Economy
This unit examines various political economy approaches to the analysis of economics, mainly associated with Austrian, Marxian, post-Keynesian and evolutionary schools of thought. These may be regarded as the main alternatives to neo-classical economic theory. As they do not represent a unified body of thought, the unit will survey the main contributions of each, focusing on both the positive aspects of theory and the negative aspects relating to the critique of neo-classical theory.
And four electives
International Trade and Finance Key Program
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Globalisation and Australia
This unit provides an overview of the development of the Australian economy since 1788 in the context of the evolution of the global economy during the last two centuries. A strong emphasis is placed on the interaction of the processes promoting globalisation in the international economy, with the endemic tendencies towards social conflict and nationalism that have accompanied the consolidation of the capitalist nation state. Within this framework the specific factors that have given Australian economic development its unique character are analysed. The unit concludes by examining the socio-economic outcomes that ongoing globalisation is likely to produce in the twenty-first century and looks at the principal alternative economic strategies that Australian governments might follow over the next few decades.
Financial Institutions and Markets
The investment, financing and risk management decisions that all firms make are implemented by creating and trading financial instruments in financial markets, often with the involvement of a variety of institutions. Using the Australian financial system as an illustration, this unit introduces students to the theory and functions of financial intermediaries and the operation of financial systems. Students also develop an understanding of the role and functions of markets in equities, debt, foreign exchange, options and futures, and theories of interest rate determination and the term structure of interest rates.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
And one elective
Year 2
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
Globalisation and Asia
This unit aims to examine the role of the diverse economies of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia in the Global economy, and the complex economic, historical, political, social and cultural factors which have influenced and continue to shape the transformation of these economies. The unit will evaluate alternative development paradigms in light of the experience of these economies. The discussion will be cast within the wider debate about the role of foreign trade and investment flows. The unit will take the political economy approach to understanding both the transformation of these economies and their role in the Global Economy.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Globalisation and Trade
This unit introduces students to the history and analytical methods of international trade theories and their applications. The theories are applied to contemporary issues in their institutional settings, in particular to: growth and development; economic integration and trading blocs; and the transformation of formerly planned economies as participants in global market structures.
And three electives
Year 3
Global Labour Markets
This unit will study the labour market in a global economy. It will study employment, unemployment, labour market participation, and wages in a global economy. It will study the role of international migration in employment, unemployment, and wage determination. The role of global labour markets in determining the salaries of CEOs and unskilled workers will be considered. We will also discuss the role of outsourcing of activities from the developed world to developing countries, e.g. call centres.
International Finance
The general aim of this unit is to examine how financial and non-financial firms use key foreign exchange and interest rate products to manage the risk associated with their international investment and financing decisions. This unit complements other aspects of managerial decision-making, including the marketing and production decisions of the international firm.
Choose two of
History of Economic Thought
This unit introduces the ideas of the most influential economic writers since Aristotle. Their theoretic contributions are discussed in the context of the political and philosophical debates and the economic issues of their times. The unit focuses on the theories of value and distribution; business cycles; and money and economic growth. It examines the criteria for progress in economic thought and considers the role of ideology and values. Students read selections from the writings of Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, Marshall, Keynes and institutional writers.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Political Economy
This unit examines various political economy approaches to the analysis of economics, mainly associated with Austrian, Marxian, post-Keynesian and evolutionary schools of thought. These may be regarded as the main alternatives to neo-classical economic theory. As they do not represent a unified body of thought, the unit will survey the main contributions of each, focusing on both the positive aspects of theory and the negative aspects relating to the critique of neo-classical theory.
Macroeconomic Issues
Macroeconomic Issues builds on concepts examined in earlier units in macroeconomics and applies them to selected areas of debate concerning macroeconomic policy formulation. The unit examines key areas of debate within macroeconomic theory and develops an understanding of approaches used in the theoretical and empirical modelling of key macroeconomic aggregates. Macroeconomic policies are analysed for an open economy with special reference to the Australian economy. Major policy areas considered include inflation, unemployment and labour markets, exchange rate adjustments and the current account, the role and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, and Australia’s recent economic growth performance.
And four electives
Property and Urban and Regional Development Key Program
Year 1
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Globalisation and Australia
This unit provides an overview of the development of the Australian economy since 1788 in the context of the evolution of the global economy during the last two centuries. A strong emphasis is placed on the interaction of the processes promoting globalisation in the international economy, with the endemic tendencies towards social conflict and nationalism that have accompanied the consolidation of the capitalist nation state. Within this framework the specific factors that have given Australian economic development its unique character are analysed. The unit concludes by examining the socio-economic outcomes that ongoing globalisation is likely to produce in the twenty-first century and looks at the principal alternative economic strategies that Australian governments might follow over the next few decades.
Financial Institutions and Markets
The investment, financing and risk management decisions that all firms make are implemented by creating and trading financial instruments in financial markets, often with the involvement of a variety of institutions. Using the Australian financial system as an illustration, this unit introduces students to the theory and functions of financial intermediaries and the operation of financial systems. Students also develop an understanding of the role and functions of markets in equities, debt, foreign exchange, options and futures, and theories of interest rate determination and the term structure of interest rates.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
And one elective
Year 2
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
Introduction to Property
This unit is broken down to four main topic areas. The first topic area will cover the various professions within the property industry with particular emphasis on the valuation profession. The second session will concentrate on the areas of academic and industry report writing. This section will also address the areas of academic study, lecture procedures and examination technique. The third section will cover topics in relation to residential valuation and introduce the valuation methodologies for the more advanced property types as well as the skills required for data collection. The fourth section will introduce the valuation mathematics required for later valuation units.
Economics of Planning and the Environment
This unit equips students with the skills to apply economic principles and theories to issues in planning and the environment. The aim is to provide a broad understanding of microeconomic and macroeconomic systems and how these determine policies for managing the environment. It is a foundation for further studies in environmental economics and core planning courses.
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
And three electives
Year 3
Property Portfolio Analysis (V2)
This unit examines the role of property in an investment portfolio, with particular attention given to property portfolio performance analysis and property investment strategy. Indirect property investment vehicles in Australia and overseas are assessed, including listed property trusts, property syndicates, property securities funds and listed property trust futures. The performance analysis of both direct and indirect property is also examined to assess the strategic contribution of property to an investment portfolio.
Property Development
This unit critically evaluates the wide ranging nature of the property development process, from initial development concept through to the end use of completed development projects. Considesr the implications of the property development process and development decisions from the wide ranging points of view of developers, end users, financiers, public authorities and the community at large. Gains both a theoretical and an applied understanding of development appraisal techniques, including financial and feasibility aspects inherent in those techniques.
Urban and Regional Economics
This unit deals with: models of short-run fluctuations of regional aggregates and the economic relations between regions; models of long-run change in regional aggregates and the long-run economic relations between regions; equilibrium models of intra-urban location; optimal models of intra-urban allocation; and optimal allocation of capital to urban land.
Property Investment
This unit is designed to provide students with the knowledge required for making property investment decisions. It teaches students how to systematically analyse potential property investments in the real world. The analysis is based on the discounted cashflow models, which utilizes techniques such as NPV, IRR and MIRR, etc.
And four electives
Majors and Sub-Majors
The following majors and sub-majors are available to all students not taking Bachelor of Economics or Bachelor of Business & Commerce (Applied Finance) or (Economics and Finance):
Economics Major
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
Choose one of
Statistics for Business
This Level 1 unit introduces the basic concepts and techniques of statistics that are particularly relevant to problem solving in business. It also provides a sound base for more advanced study in statistics and forecasting in subsequent sessions. Topics include: presentation of data; descriptive statistics; the role of uncertainty in business decision making; hypothesis testing; and basic forecasting.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
Statistics for Science
This Level 1 unit introduces the basic concepts and techniques of statistics that are particularly relevant to problem solving in science and technology. It also provides a sound base for more advanced study in statistics in subsequent sessions. Topics include: presentation of data; descriptive statistics; the role of uncertainty in decision making; hypothesis testing; and simple linear regression.
Choose five of (three of which must be Level 300 units):
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Microeconomic Theory and Applications
The aim of this unit is to extend students’ knowledge of microeconomic theory developed in the unit Industry Economics and Markets. After a more formal presentation, the rather idealistic assumptions used in the context of the perfectly competitive markets will be relaxed in order to model typical situations encountered in the business world. The theory of choice will be extended to situations where individuals face uncertainty regarding the outcome of their own actions. In terms of market structure, we will investigate the consequences in terms of price, quantity and consumer’s surplus, of monopoly, oligopoly or duopoly markets. As some of these market structures imply that the individuals’ decisions might strongly affect or be affected by a limited number of other decision makers, an introduction to Game Theory will be presented. Finally, our concerns for investigating more realistic economic situations will lead us to make a brief incursion into markets characterised by asymmetric information, the presence of public goods or the existence of externalities.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
Macroeconomic Issues
Macroeconomic Issues builds on concepts examined in earlier units in macroeconomics and applies them to selected areas of debate concerning macroeconomic policy formulation. The unit examines key areas of debate within macroeconomic theory and develops an understanding of approaches used in the theoretical and empirical modelling of key macroeconomic aggregates. Macroeconomic policies are analysed for an open economy with special reference to the Australian economy. Major policy areas considered include inflation, unemployment and labour markets, exchange rate adjustments and the current account, the role and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, and Australia’s recent economic growth performance.
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
History of Economic Thought
This unit introduces the ideas of the most influential economic writers since Aristotle. Their theoretic contributions are discussed in the context of the political and philosophical debates and the economic issues of their times. The unit focuses on the theories of value and distribution; business cycles; and money and economic growth. It examines the criteria for progress in economic thought and considers the role of ideology and values. Students read selections from the writings of Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, Marshall, Keynes and institutional writers.
Political Economy
This unit examines various political economy approaches to the analysis of economics, mainly associated with Austrian, Marxian, post-Keynesian and evolutionary schools of thought. These may be regarded as the main alternatives to neo-classical economic theory. As they do not represent a unified body of thought, the unit will survey the main contributions of each, focusing on both the positive aspects of theory and the negative aspects relating to the critique of neo-classical theory.
Urban and Regional Economics
This unit deals with: models of short-run fluctuations of regional aggregates and the economic relations between regions; models of long-run change in regional aggregates and the long-run economic relations between regions; equilibrium models of intra-urban location; optimal models of intra-urban allocation; and optimal allocation of capital to urban land.
Managerial Economics
This unit develops and applies economic theories and principles introduced in previous units. Practicality is emphasised, with economic methods, theories and practices being applied to managerial decision making. Topics include: the firm's environment, production, costs, profit maximisation, constrained optimisation, markets, firm behaviour, project management, and the impact of government policy.
Government and the Economy
This unit focuses on the nature of state activity in the economy. The unit introduces students to different analytical approaches to the economic role of the state and considers their practical implications for economic policy analysis.
Globalisation and Asia
This unit aims to examine the role of the diverse economies of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia in the Global economy, and the complex economic, historical, political, social and cultural factors which have influenced and continue to shape the transformation of these economies. The unit will evaluate alternative development paradigms in light of the experience of these economies. The discussion will be cast within the wider debate about the role of foreign trade and investment flows. The unit will take the political economy approach to understanding both the transformation of these economies and their role in the Global Economy.
Global Labour Markets
This unit will study the labour market in a global economy. It will study employment, unemployment, labour market participation, and wages in a global economy. It will study the role of international migration in employment, unemployment, and wage determination. The role of global labour markets in determining the salaries of CEOs and unskilled workers will be considered. We will also discuss the role of outsourcing of activities from the developed world to developing countries, e.g. call centres.
Economics Sub-major
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
The Australian Macroeconomy
This unit is an introduction to macroeconomic concepts, analysis and issues in the Australian context. Basic concepts introduced and applied include: national income accounting, economic structure, price indexes and inflation, the balance of payments, and labour market aggregates. These concepts are applied in describing and explaining the recent evolution of the Australian economy in terms of growth, structural change, price stability, and employment. This leads to a discussion of major policy issues such as the role of governments in managing economic fluctuations, and the implications of Australia’s foreign liabilities. The course ends with a brief introduction to modelling income determination.
Choose two of
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
History of Economic Thought
This unit introduces the ideas of the most influential economic writers since Aristotle. Their theoretic contributions are discussed in the context of the political and philosophical debates and the economic issues of their times. The unit focuses on the theories of value and distribution; business cycles; and money and economic growth. It examines the criteria for progress in economic thought and considers the role of ideology and values. Students read selections from the writings of Smith, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, Marshall, Keynes and institutional writers.
Political Economy
This unit examines various political economy approaches to the analysis of economics, mainly associated with Austrian, Marxian, post-Keynesian and evolutionary schools of thought. These may be regarded as the main alternatives to neo-classical economic theory. As they do not represent a unified body of thought, the unit will survey the main contributions of each, focusing on both the positive aspects of theory and the negative aspects relating to the critique of neo-classical theory.
Urban and Regional Economics
This unit deals with: models of short-run fluctuations of regional aggregates and the economic relations between regions; models of long-run change in regional aggregates and the long-run economic relations between regions; equilibrium models of intra-urban location; optimal models of intra-urban allocation; and optimal allocation of capital to urban land.
Managerial Economics
This unit develops and applies economic theories and principles introduced in previous units. Practicality is emphasised, with economic methods, theories and practices being applied to managerial decision making. Topics include: the firm's environment, production, costs, profit maximisation, constrained optimisation, markets, firm behaviour, project management, and the impact of government policy.
Microeconomic Theory and Applications
The aim of this unit is to extend students’ knowledge of microeconomic theory developed in the unit Industry Economics and Markets. After a more formal presentation, the rather idealistic assumptions used in the context of the perfectly competitive markets will be relaxed in order to model typical situations encountered in the business world. The theory of choice will be extended to situations where individuals face uncertainty regarding the outcome of their own actions. In terms of market structure, we will investigate the consequences in terms of price, quantity and consumer’s surplus, of monopoly, oligopoly or duopoly markets. As some of these market structures imply that the individuals’ decisions might strongly affect or be affected by a limited number of other decision makers, an introduction to Game Theory will be presented. Finally, our concerns for investigating more realistic economic situations will lead us to make a brief incursion into markets characterised by asymmetric information, the presence of public goods or the existence of externalities.
Industry Economics and Markets
The first part of this unit develops an understanding of the relationships between industry structure, the conduct of firms, and market performance. Alternative theories of the firm and strategic market behaviour are considered. The unit then examines the characteristics and operation of particular markets, including public goods and utilities, human resources, and natural and environmental resources. The analysis developed in the unit is used to provide insights into applied policy areas such as competition policy, regulation of public enterprises, microeconomic reform and industry policy.
Government and the Economy
This unit focuses on the nature of state activity in the economy. The unit introduces students to different analytical approaches to the economic role of the state and considers their practical implications for economic policy analysis.
Globalisation and Asia
This unit aims to examine the role of the diverse economies of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia in the Global economy, and the complex economic, historical, political, social and cultural factors which have influenced and continue to shape the transformation of these economies. The unit will evaluate alternative development paradigms in light of the experience of these economies. The discussion will be cast within the wider debate about the role of foreign trade and investment flows. The unit will take the political economy approach to understanding both the transformation of these economies and their role in the Global Economy.
Global Labour Markets
This unit will study the labour market in a global economy. It will study employment, unemployment, labour market participation, and wages in a global economy. It will study the role of international migration in employment, unemployment, and wage determination. The role of global labour markets in determining the salaries of CEOs and unskilled workers will be considered. We will also discuss the role of outsourcing of activities from the developed world to developing countries, e.g. call centres.
Macroeconomic Issues
Macroeconomic Issues builds on concepts examined in earlier units in macroeconomics and applies them to selected areas of debate concerning macroeconomic policy formulation. The unit examines key areas of debate within macroeconomic theory and develops an understanding of approaches used in the theoretical and empirical modelling of key macroeconomic aggregates. Macroeconomic policies are analysed for an open economy with special reference to the Australian economy. Major policy areas considered include inflation, unemployment and labour markets, exchange rate adjustments and the current account, the role and effectiveness of monetary and fiscal policy, and Australia’s recent economic growth performance.
Macroeconomic Theory
Macroeconomic Theory aims to provide alternative theoretical explanations of the working of the macroeconomy. The unit will be based on the analytical narratives of macroeconomic developments taught in Australian Macroeconomy. Starting from the basic IS-LM model, it derives the aggregate demand (AD) curve and examines the components of commodity and money markets. It also analyses the labour market and derives the aggregate supply (AS) curve of an economy. Using the AD-AS model, it examines the interdependent nature of macroeconomic problems (e.g. inflation, unemployment), and the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policies within a closed economy context. The basic model is then extended to analyse open economy issues (e.g., exchange rates and balance of payments, external shocks and international interdependence). Whenever appropriate, alternative approaches to macroeconomics are evaluated.
Finance Major
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Choose one of
Statistics for Business
This Level 1 unit introduces the basic concepts and techniques of statistics that are particularly relevant to problem solving in business. It also provides a sound base for more advanced study in statistics and forecasting in subsequent sessions. Topics include: presentation of data; descriptive statistics; the role of uncertainty in business decision making; hypothesis testing; and basic forecasting.
Introduction to Economic Methods
Introduction to Economic Methods will cover basic concepts in Mathematics and Statistics to help their understanding of subjects like accounting, management, marketing, finance, and economics. In addition, the analytical techniques, concepts and models that will be discussed in this unit will play a foundation role in a Business degree.
Topics include: Use of summation signs; financial mathematics; differential calculus and its application in business; collection, analysis and interpretation of data using simple descriptive statistical methods; probability distributions, and hypothesis testing.
Statistics for Science
This Level 1 unit introduces the basic concepts and techniques of statistics that are particularly relevant to problem solving in science and technology. It also provides a sound base for more advanced study in statistics in subsequent sessions. Topics include: presentation of data; descriptive statistics; the role of uncertainty in decision making; hypothesis testing; and simple linear regression.
Choose four of
Economic Modelling
This unit builds on concepts explored in Introduction to Economic Methods. The unit broadens the application of the stochastic linear model in econometrics, exploring its use in the estimation of economic models and in the testing of economic hypotheses associated with these models. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
Applied Econometrics
This unit builds on the econometric methods of Economic Modelling. The focus is on the linear model in econometrics in its application to economic and financial time series. The emphasis is on learning by doing in small group workshops.
International Finance
The general aim of this unit is to examine how financial and non-financial firms use key foreign exchange and interest rate products to manage the risk associated with their international investment and financing decisions. This unit complements other aspects of managerial decision-making, including the marketing and production decisions of the international firm.
Investment Management
This unit describes the theory and practice of investment decision making. The general objective of the unit is to introduce students to finance theory and to the tools of financial decision making by providing a conceptual framework within which the key financial decision of investment can be analysed.
Financial Economics
This unit provides students with a unifying theoretical perspective on the most important concepts in the field of finance. The presentation is rigorous and students develop their ability to critically evaluate the principal theoretical results in the finance literature.
Financial Institutions Management
This unit provides an introduction to the theory and analytical techniques relevant to the management of Australian financial institutions. The unit presents a thorough examination of the major financial risks faced by Australian banks, and methods of measuring and managing these risks.
Financial Institutions Lending
The focus of this unit is primarily on loan policy questions, such as the appropriate loan portfolio mix or how risks can be adequately priced into loans, rather than on the operational issues which tend to be more the focus of the internal training programs of banks and other financial institutions.
The Superannuation Industry
This unit provides students with an understanding of the economics of retirement and retirement income provision, with particular emphasis on the Australian superannuation industry. On completion of this unit, students should have a comprehensive understanding of superannuation in Australia, as well as an appreciation of the economic issues associated with alternative models of retirement income provision.
Derivatives
This unit provides an introduction to trading and the theory of pricing of options, futures and other derivative products currently used in the domestic and international financial markets.
Behavioural Finance
Traditional theories of finance are based the assumption that investors are both rational and utility maximizing. The Efficient Markets Hypothesis in particular has assumptions about investor behaviour which underpin its key predictions. The tenants of beharioural finance disputes the validity of these assumptions. This unit challenges traditional theory by examining how decision making and investor behaviour may be driven by personal and market psychology.
Finance Sub-major
Principles of Economics
This unit is an introduction to economic concepts and contemporary economic issues. It introduces students to basic concepts such as markets and their operation, the behaviour of firms, the efficiency and potential failings of free markets, the role of government, key macroeconomic variables and problems such as unemployment. It illuminates these concepts via application to contemporary economic issues and debates over different theoretical perspectives. This unit also exposes students to recent developments in economics via presentations by specialist guest lecturers.
Accounting Information for Managers
For information on this unit please contact the Unit Coordinators: Sharon Taylor (Blacktown and Campbelltown Campuses) and Jean McCartney (Parramatta Campus). This unit provides exposure to financial and management accounting information from a user viewpoint. The unit aims to provide breadth of awareness and knowledge in relevant fields of accounting essential to decision making for managers.
Corporate Financial Management
This unit introduces the fundamental concepts of finance theory and the tools of financial decision making in the context of the Australian institutional environment. These concepts relate primarily to the time value of money, risk and return, capital budgeting and capital structure. The unit's purpose is to develop an understanding of the basic practices of financial management from the perspective of a firm (both large and small). Students examine the investment, financing and dividend decisions of corporations.
Plus one of
International Finance
The general aim of this unit is to examine how financial and non-financial firms use key foreign exchange and interest rate products to manage the risk associated with their international investment and financing decisions. This unit complements other aspects of managerial decision-making, including the marketing and production decisions of the international firm.
Investment Management
This unit describes the theory and practice of investment decision making. The general objective of the unit is to introduce students to finance theory and to the tools of financial decision making by providing a conceptual framework within which the key financial decision of investment can be analysed.
Financial Economics
This unit provides students with a unifying theoretical perspective on the most important concepts in the field of finance. The presentation is rigorous and students develop their ability to critically evaluate the principal theoretical results in the finance literature.
Financial Institutions Management
This unit provides an introduction to the theory and analytical techniques relevant to the management of Australian financial institutions. The unit presents a thorough examination of the major financial risks faced by Australian banks, and methods of measuring and managing these risks.
Financial Institutions Lending
The focus of this unit is primarily on loan policy questions, such as the appropriate loan portfolio mix or how risks can be adequately priced into loans, rather than on the operational issues which tend to be more the focus of the internal training programs of banks and other financial institutions.
The Superannuation Industry
This unit provides students with an understanding of the economics of retirement and retirement income provision, with particular emphasis on the Australian superannuation industry. On completion of this unit, students should have a comprehensive understanding of superannuation in Australia, as well as an appreciation of the economic issues associated with alternative models of retirement income provision.
Derivatives
This unit provides an introduction to trading and the theory of pricing of options, futures and other derivative products currently used in the domestic and international financial markets.
Behavioural Finance
Traditional theories of finance are based the assumption that investors are both rational and utility maximizing. The Efficient Markets Hypothesis in particular has assumptions about investor behaviour which underpin its key predictions. The tenants of beharioural finance disputes the validity of these assumptions. This unit challenges traditional theory by examining how decision making and investor behaviour may be driven by personal and market psychology.